De la juventud...
lunes, agosto 11, 2008
Paisajes perfectos
lunes, julio 21, 2008
Carlos Rodríguez Braun sobre Gabriel Jackson
El historiador Gabriel Jackson, un darling del pensamiento único, afirma en El País: "el mercado no se preocupa por el destino de los individuos". Y añade: "el mercado, si no se regula, es completamente amoral...la competencia de mercado decide qué productos son los más atractivos para los consumidores...la crisis de las hipotecas basura...es un ejemplo perfecto de la amoralidad del mercado".
Es característica de los enemigos de la libertad la negación de la responsabilidad individual. Así, los individuos no pueden preocuparse por su destino, porque son obviamente irresponsables. Entonces, "el mercado" es visto como una entidad separada de las personas, a la que se adjudican toda suerte de deficiencias, para no tener que confesar abiertamente la tesis fundamental: como la gente es idiota, alguien tiene que preocuparse por ella. No pueden ser libres (o sea, el mercado) y por tanto es la alternativa la que vale, y la alternativa de la libertad es la coacción. Quienes deben preocuparse por el destino de los individuos no pueden ser los individuos libres, con lo cual el protagonismo debe ser para quien encarna la coacción: el poder político y legislativo.
Para sostener una tesis tan paternalista, repito, hay que despreciar al individuo, que no es capaz de elegir lo que le resulta más atractivo consumir. Como en realidad no es libre, sus decisiones no pueden ser morales, porque la moral es siempre voluntaria. Eso es lo que quieren decir los enemigos de la libertad cuando dicen que el mercado –o sea, la gente libre, la única que puede tener y tiene sentido moral– es amoral.
Si la libertad es amoral, entonces su opuesto es quien está provisto de sentido moral. Y de ahí la conclusión de que el Estado es quien encarna la ética. Tan disparatada noción debe ser acolchada por la ficción de que todo contratiempo es derivado de la libertad. Así, cuando aparecen los problemas en unos regímenes bancarios regulados públicamente dentro unos sistemas monetarios monopólicos y públicos, la corrección política corre en busca del obvio culpable: el mercado, es decir, la libertad.
jueves, julio 17, 2008
miércoles, julio 16, 2008
Rif 1921
martes, julio 15, 2008
Wordsworth para Amaya.
¿QUÉ ES OCCIDENTE? de Philippe Nemo. Gota a Gota. Reseña de Marco
Pues bien, no es verdad. A pesar de la casta de mandarines y caciques surgidos de las escuelas de políticos funcionarios, a pesar del conservadurismo y del miedo de los franceses, a pesar de la corrupción de la República sigue habiendo liberales en Francia, y el liberalismo sigue dando frutos en una tierra en la que siempre tuvo arraigo.
Tenemos ahora una nueva prueba en el libro, mejor dicho panfleto, aunque razonado, que acaba de publicar la editorial Gota a Gota. Se titula ¿Qué es Occidente? y su autor es Philippe Nemo, profesor y estudioso de las ideas políticas. En España se han publicado de él Job y el exceso del mal (1995), un ensayo a partir de la gran reflexión del francés Emmanuel Lévinas sobre el significado de "pecado original", y otro trabajo más breve, pero enjundioso, sobre la oligarquía de la V República francesa.
Philippe Nemo también es el responsable de la edición de una monumental historia del liberalismo europeo, que saldrá en Francia dentro de unos meses y renovará bastantes perspectivas.
Como se ve, no es hombre falto de ambiciones. El solo título del libro ahora publicado en español indica que no se va a rendir. Se lo agradecemos.
No estamos ante una divagación más sobre un término particularmente confuso. Este panfleto no es una nueva lista de valores y convicciones, ni otra glosa sobre reflexiones anteriores ni, menos aún, un lamento elegíaco. Nemo propone, ni más ni menos, una definición de Occidente.
En los cinco primero capítulos el autor describe los cinco acontecimientos históricos que han hecho de Occidente lo que es, a saber: la invención de la ciudad, de la libertad bajo la ley, de la ciencia y la escuela (con los griegos); la invención, por los romanos, del derecho, de la propiedad privada, de la persona y del humanismo; la revolución ética y la invención del tiempo histórico que trajo la Biblia; lo que llama la "revolución papal" de los siglos XI y XII, que es la síntesis de los tres hechos anteriores –Atenas, Roma y Jerusalén– y que rescata para la Iglesia Católica parte de lo que muchos historiadores han atribuido a la Reforma; y, finalmente, la promoción de la democracia liberal.
Aplicando estos criterios rigurosamente, resulta una geografía de Occidente muy precisa, más de la que Huntington trazó en El choque de civilizaciones. La conforman los países que han vivido los cinco acontecimientos (los antiguos quince de la actual Unión Europea, salvo Grecia), además de las democracias anglosajonas (Estados Unidos, Canadá, Australia y Nueva Zelanda). Cerca, pero no en el núcleo duro, están los países del este de Europa, donde no hubo revolución democrática, los hispanoamericanos e Israel. En el otro extremo están los países dominados por el Islam.
Nemo no niega la vocación universalista de Occidente en aras del multiculturalismo. Países no occidentales como Japón o la India han demostrado que los valores occidentales son transmisibles, adaptables y fecundos en otras circunstancias. Pero tampoco oculta las diferencias en aras de un mestizaje universal. Como no se hace ilusiones –con razón– acerca del fin de los conflictos, argumenta que más vale tener claras las ideas para entablar un diálogo en profundidad, no un simple intercambio de cortesías vanas, y menos aún un suicidio como el que preconiza el Gobierno socialista español.
Por eso mismo, Nemo se atreve a proponer, al final, una idea original. Se trata de la creación de una Unión Occidental. Sería algo distinto de la Unión Europea indefinidamente abierta que hemos conocido hasta ahora y ya ha entrado definitivamente en barrena. También sería algo distinto a cualquier tipo de zona controlada por una supuesta hegemonía norteamericana.
La Unión Occidental vendría a ser la alianza de un conjunto de países que comparten una identidad cultural esencial, un "espacio institucionalizado de concertación y coordinación, una libre República de países iguales en derechos".
¿Pura utopía? En parte sí, pero propuestas arriesgadas como éstas tienen la virtud de devolvernos a realidades esenciales: la necesidad de saber quiénes somos, si queremos defendernos, y cómo apuntalamos la base sobre la que se ha construido Occidente: la libertad.
Como el panfleto es corto, está bien escrito –sin los amaneramientos del francés actual– y bien traducido, se lee de un tirón. Y le hace a uno soñar con lo que podría llegar a ser, con los medios de que disponemos hoy, un Occidente dispuesto a promocionar los valores liberales, que son los suyos.
José María Marco
viernes, junio 27, 2008
El genio del cristianismo
- Bellezas de la religión cristiana
- Autor: Chateaubriand
- Trad.: Manuel M. Flamant
- Editorial: Ciudadela Libros
- Colección: Ensayo
- Precio: 29,50 €
- Páginas: 624
lunes, junio 23, 2008
Armytimes.com
- Standing weighted arm raises Standing weighted arm raises challenge the abs from a static standing position. Select one or two light dumbbells (5 to 15 pounds.) and stand with your feet shoulder-width apart. Brace your stomach as if for a punch. At the same time, squeeze your glutes and tuck your pelvis under and forward — this is essential. Squeeze the handles hard and hold your body very tight. Exhale tightly, making a hissing sound as you lift the weights with locked arms out in front of you to shoulder level or straight above your head. This movement must be done slowly and under control with maximum tension. Lower the weights to the starting position with the same breathing and control. You will feel the burn immediately. Now raise the weights with locked arms to the side to shoulder level or above the head with the same breathing and tension. Lower in the same manner. Perform three to five sets of three to five reps each. Relax and breathe between sets for about one minute. For a more advanced version, lift the weights above your head to the front and lower them to the side. Then reverse the movement.
- The hot potato The hot potato places a more dynamic load on the muscles. Hold a medicine ball or a kettlebell hand weight (picture a cannonball with a handle) in one hand in the "rack" position — the weight at your shoulder, your arm tight to your side. Stand with your feet shoulder-width apart and maintain the same ab and glute tension as above. In a slow, controlled motion, transfer the weight to the other hand and repeat. You should feel your abs fire to accept the weight. Next, gently toss the weight from hand to hand, starting with your hands close together and moving slowly farther apart — no more than 12 inches. Add weight to increase the difficulty if desired. This drill can be done for many reps. The general guideline is to rest when your form begins to deteriorate. Three to five sets is a good goal. Nate Morrison is an Air Force pararescueman staff sergeant. He is a military fitness expert and founder of the online magazine www.milfitmag.com.
domingo, junio 22, 2008
sábado, junio 21, 2008
Dios y sus vecinos gitanos
miércoles, junio 18, 2008
martes, junio 17, 2008
Michael McDonald
lunes, junio 16, 2008
Melancolia segun el clérigo Burton
“Melancolía” es una palabra polivalente. Desde la antiguedad se distinguió entre la causada por “bilis negra” y la más benigna y “prestigiosa”, que aquejaba con frecuencia a los poetas: según Aulio Gelio la melancolía es la enfermedad del héroe. La casi sinonimia de melancolía y tristeza perduró hasta nuestros días. Victor Hugo dijo que “melancolía es la felicidad de estar triste”, e Italo Calvino que es “tristeza que se ha vuelto luminosa”. También se incorporó la melancolía al concepto de la depresión, la manía y la locura. Burton la llama “el óxido del alma”, englobando en sus análisis los tormentos gemelos del decaimiento espiritual y sus manifestaciones físicas. La melancolía “grave” amenaza al cuerpo con un maligno despliegue de sensaciones, que Burton enumera en prodigioso catálogo. Señala que la melancolía es inherente al hecho de ser criaturas mortales. Inquiere si es enfermedad o síntoma. A quienes la definían como un delirio sin fiebre acompañado por temor y tristeza les señala que no toman en cuenta la imaginación y el cerebro. A los maniáticos del ejercicio físico (que no deja de recomendar) les recuerda que la ociosidad del espíritu es mucho peor que la del cuerpo; que la desocupación mental es una enfermedad; que la imaginación tiene una fuerza muy peculiar entre los melancólicos, y que para que la imaginación no nos aniquile la mente debe estar activa. Observa que no hay ser humano inmune a las tendencias melancólicas, y que la melancolía es inseparable de la idea de la muerte. Asienta el hecho de que la melancolía parece favorecer el mecanismo de la ideación y la meditación profunda, y de que hay hombres a quienes resulta placentera. Pero lo que hace del libro una obra inigualable es lo incidental: la melancolía es el trampolín, pero lo que interesa es la totalidad de la experiencia humana. Burton trata todos los ítems imaginables y muchísimos imaginarios. Los trasgos, la belleza, la geografía de América, la digestión, las pasiones, la bebida, el beso, los celos, la erudición y mil otras “atracciones” surgen a cada paso, aludidas con sabiduría y gracia inigualables. Incidentalmente, también, Burton dice: “Escribo sobre la melancolía para eludir la melancolía”.
Robert BURTON, Anatomía de la melancolía
Robert Burton's The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621) is arguably the first major text in the history of Western cognitive science: not because Burton is the first to theorize the nature of cognition or engage in cognitive modeling, as is made plainly evident by the many quasi-plagiarisms and numerous references to other thinkers which appear in Burton's text, but because of the thematic underpinnings and encyclopedic nature of Burton's vision. Burton's theories are based upon no contemporaneously new medical evidence about the anatomical workings of the human body or mind. As Floyd Dell has pointed out, "early 17th-century medicine, at the time Burton wrote, was humbly relying upon the authority of the great Greek and Arabian physicians, Galen, Hippocrates, Avicenna, etc.; there was no new scientific knowledge to serve as the basis of any large and illuminating generalizations upon the subject of morbid psychology." In the absence of such information, Burton focused his gaze upon the widest scope of previous thinkers about cognition available to him. There is hardly a previous thinker or school of thought on humanity which is not referenced in Burton's text, and Burton's own references show that he was familiar with nearly all the medical, astrological, and magical books then extant. Burton assimilated these previous thinkers, often playing them off of each other, and produced a model of human consciousness which, while anatomically and logically flawed in almost every respect, canonized a set of conceptual divisions of the human psyche and body which continue to the present day to determine how we examine consciousness and cognition. As its title suggests, the bulk of Burton's text is devoted to cataloguing the many variants, manifestations, and causes of the mental "disease" Melancholy; but before Burton begins his dissection of the anatomy of melancholy, he first embarks upon a more general discussion of overall cognitive functioning, believing it "not impertinent to make a brief digression of the anatomy of the body and faculties of the soul, for better understanding of that which is to follow." This digression, which appears in Partition I, Section I, Members 1 and 2 of the text, provides a detailed analysis of human cognitive processes and of their physiological (and sometimes neurological, in Burton's own terminology,) basis.The Model: Burton's model of human cognition is a mix of philosophizing about the qualitative nature of consciousness and attempts to identify the physiological mechanisms responsible for carrying out the various cognitive processes of which humans are capable. At the heart of Burton's cognitive model is a conception of the mind and body as a total organism. While he does at times gesture towards an historically familiar mind/body dualism, the primary focus of his anatomy is a discussion of the physiology of thought. (see the Discussion below for a more detailed discussion of Burton's dualism.) As such, he begins his anatomy of the mind with an anatomy of the body. Relying on the systems of Laurentius and Hippocrates, Burton asserts that everything that is contained within the human body is composed of either a Spirit or a Humour. In his definition of Spirits, however, he sets the stage for a type of theorizing about the nature of thought and consciousness in which the Greeks themselves did not engage. According to Burton, "Spirit is a most subtle vapour, which is expressed from the blood [but is not actually blood itself, which is a Humour] and the instrument of the soul, to perform all his actions; a common tie or medium betwixt the body and the soul" (129). This belief is, in itself, not radical; but Burton goes on to explain exactly where in the body Spirits are produced, thereby anchoring the soul in the body in a way which is historically unique. According to Burton there are three types of Spirits--Natural, Vital, and Animal--originating in the liver, heart, and brain respectively. The liver produces the Natural which are carried through the body by veins; the heart converts the Natural spirits into Vital spirits and transports these through the body via the arteries; and the brain converts the Vital spirits into Animal spirits and diffuses them "by the nerves, to the subordinate members, giv[ing] sense and motion to them all." The nerves themselves are "membranes without, and full of marrow within; they proceed from the brain, and carry the animal spirits for sense and motion" (129). Burton goes on to distinguish between two types of nerves: Soft and Hard. Soft nerves, he claims, serve the seven senses, while the harder nerves "serve for the motion of the inner parts proceeding from the marrow in the back" (130). After a not so brief description of the exact functioning of the harder nerves and of all the internal organs which they control, Burton begins to lay out the beginnings of a rudimentary model of human cognition which is based in physiology. According to Burton, "in the upper region serving the animal faculties [the head], the chief organ is the brain, which is a soft, marowish, and white substance, engendered of the purest part of seed and spirits, included by many skins" (134), divided into several parts, each with a unique function. The "fore part hath many concavities distinguished by certain ventricles, which are the receptacles of the spirits, brought hither by the arteries from the heart, and are there refined to a more heavenly nature, to perform the actions of the soul. Of these ventricles there be three -right, left, and middle. The right and left answer to their site, and beget animal spirits; if they be any way hurt, sense and motion ceaseth. These ventricles, moreover, are held to be the seat of the common sense. The middle ventricle is a common concourse and cavity of them both and hath two passages, the one to receive pituita, and the other extends itself to the fourth creek: in this they place imagination and cogitation ...The fourth creek behind the head is common to the cerebel or little brain, and marrow of the backbone, the last, and most solid of all the rest, which receives the animal spirits from the other ventricles, and conveys them to the marrow in the back, and is the place where they say the memory is seated" (135). As for the soul itself, which is 'infused' into the fore part of the brain, Burton claims that "We can understand all things by her, but what she is we cannot apprehend" (135); however, this does not prevent from theorizing both about its nature and about the details of how it performs its work. According to Burton, the soul is divided into three principle faculties: 'vegetal', 'sensitive' and 'rational'. The vegetal soul is "a substancial act of an organical body, by which it is nourished, augmented, and begets another like unto itself' (135). It does not include the conscious impulses to engage in these activities, but rather the subconscious impulses which, for example, tell the stomach to digest. The sensible soul is "an act of an organical body, by which it lives, hath sense, appetite, judgment, breath, and motion" (137). This faculty of the soul is seated in the fore part of the brain and is divided into two distinct functions -'apprehending' and 'moving'. "By the apprehensive power we perceive the species of sensible things, present or absent, and retain them as wax doth a seal. By the moving the body is outwardly carried from place to place [conscious movement, as opposed to the unconscious movement brought on by the vegetal soul]" (137), including all of the appetites which stimulate bodily movement. The apprehensive sensible soul is further divided into two parts -outward and inward. The outward senses include the five senses ("to which you may add Scaliger's sixth sense of titillations"); and the inward senses are common sense, phantasy (or imagination), and memory. "Their objects are not only things present, but they perceive the sensible species of things to come, past, absent, such as were before in the sense" (139). Of the three, "common sense is the judge or moderator of the rest, by whom we discern all differences of objects" (139). Phantasy or Imagination, which is located "in the middle cell of the brain" is "an inner sense which doth more fully examine the species perceived by common sense, of things present or absent, and keeps them longer, recalling them to mind again, or making things new of his own" (139). And memory "lays up all the species which the senses have brought in, and records them as a good register, that they may be forth-coming when they are called for by phantasy and reason." The last remaining faculty of the soul is the Rational. The rational soul is a type of oversoul which contains both of the other faculties of the soul -the vegetal and the sensible- and performs its function via mediation between them (similar to Freud's superego). It is "the first substancial act of a natural , human, organical body, by which a man lives, perceives, and understands, freely doing all things, and with election" (144). The Rational Soul is divided into two chief parts, "differing in office only, not in essence" (144): The Understanding and the Will. The Understanding is the most complex of these two components of the Rational Soul. It is "a power of the soul, by which we perceive, know, remember, and judge, as well singulars as universals, having certain innate notices or beginnings of arts, a reflecting action, by which it judgeth of his own doings, and examines them. It is hardwired with innate knowledge of God, good and evil -"Synteresis, or the purer part of the conscience, is an innate bait, and doth signify a conversation of the knowledge of the law of God and Nature, to know good or evil" (145)- but it contains no innate conceptions of objects upon which to exercise this innate knowledge. "The object first moving the Understanding is some sensible thing" (144). "There is nothing in the understanding which was not first in the sense" (145).Discussion: Burton's model sets the stage for mainstream European thinking about cognition in the following three centuries both conceptually and lexically. Anatomy of Melancholy introduces several key terms which remain dominant in models of cognition through the Victorian era. The most significant of these are: 1) Phantasy or Imagination as that function of the psyche which engages in some way in thinking about thoughts; 2) Reflection, a more abstract and less specific ability to think about thoughts made present to the mind via the senses; 3) the Senses, being those physiological mechanisms responsible for bringing thoughts into the mind; and 4) Understanding, the ability to recognize universalities. The definitions of and functions attributed to these various aspects of human thought vary greatly over time; however, as categories of conceptualizing human cognition these terms remain lexically and conceptually dominant for the following three centuries. In addition, also introduces the concept of Active and Passive functions of the human psyche. This division becomes extremely important by the time we get to John Locke in 1690, who borrows much from Burton's model and terminology. The most striking difference between Burton's model of cognition and the canonical ones which follow him is the nature of the mind/body dualism which is inherent in his model. Burton's model does ultimately rely on the influence and presence of a "soul" which can not be explained by way of an anatomy of the brain. As such, he appears to be stuck in a dualist crisis in which the ultimate source of humanity exists outside of the physical. But is never willing to make this concession, and both the language which he uses in developing his model and discussing the attributes of the soul and the overall tone of the Anatomy, suggest that Burton conceived of his dualist dilemma in a manner which was significantly different than most of his contemporaries or followers. He does say of the soul that "we can understand all things by her, but what she is we cannot apprehend" (135); but it would be a mistake to perceive Burton's acknowledged lack of understanding as anything other than a lack of understanding --i.e., as a sign of a belief that it lies outside of the realm of the physical. Burton seems rather to have believed that the soul was rooted in the material, but that man simply lacked the tools or ability to recognize the actual mechanisms of this rooting. Nowhere in the text does he claim that the soul is non-material; but he is everywhere trying to locate it in the in body. Burton's explanations of exactly how the soul springs from material body are ultimately unconvincing in two important ways (other than his obvious biological and medical inaccuracies.) First, in the face of the detailed descriptions which he provides of other bodily and cognitive function, his sparse descriptions of the soul are rhetorically unconvincing. Second, those references to the anatomy of the soul which are present are conceptually vague and unclear. There are, however, two passages in particular which, if read looking backwards through the filter of 18th and 19th century cognitive theories (a practice which is admittedly tenuous) begin to shed some light on Burton's overall conception of an anatomical soul. In the books opening paragraph, Burton defines man as a "Microcosm ...created in God's own Image." Later while discussing the nature of the highest faculties of the soul, he claims that "synteresis, or the purer part of the conscience, is an innate habit" (145). These two statements, combined with various comments which Burton makes throughout the text about the presence of innate tendencies being genetically programmed into the brain and body, suggest that he conceived of the soul as being hardwired into the brain, so to speak. Like the Romantic conception of the individual as both the center and the circumference simultaneously -the whole in the part- Burton seems to be arguing that man is built, at least with regards to brain function, literally in the image of God. Any traces of a mind/body dualism which appear in the work dissolve in the face of this model. The dualist crisis becomes a crisis of understanding rather than one of existence. While this problem is only rudimentally drawn out in Burton's text, his terms of engagement set the stage for the major treatments of dualism which will follow in the next three centuries -particularly the later British Skeptics.